{"id":16511,"date":"2021-03-17T07:36:43","date_gmt":"2021-03-17T07:36:43","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/?p=16511"},"modified":"2021-03-17T07:40:41","modified_gmt":"2021-03-17T07:40:41","slug":"mathematical-models-of-information-operations","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/","title":{"rendered":"Mathematical Models of Information Operations"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><em>Article first time published by <strong><a href=\"https:\/\/infoops.pl\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Info Ops Polska Foundation. <\/a><\/strong>Authors: <strong>Rafa\u0142 Kasprzyk, Wydzia\u0142 Cybernetyki, Wojskowa Akademia Techniczna.<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0<em>Info OPS Polska Foundation was established for the implementation of projects aimed at ensuring the safety of the information environment. The project includes support for the development of the capacity to identify information and psychological operations, including conducting analyses of manipulation processes of the Polish-speaking information environment: disinformation, propaganda, social engineering and cyber activities.<\/em><\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h2><strong>Abstract<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>The changes occurring in the contemporary world are related to the dynamics of the development of modern technologies and its impact on life of almost every person. Currently, as never before in human history, \u201ceverything is interconnected\u201d through ICT (<em>Information and Communication Technologies<\/em>) networks and systems, creating the so-called cyberspace. Due to wide access to the Internet, social media started to play more significant role in the shaping of public opinion on basically every subject and to broadly impact the way of world perception by people, social groups or whole societies. Current studies presented in the paper, center, around the consistent model of information operations based on the\u00a0<em>theory of reflective control<\/em>,\u00a0<em>disinformation theory<\/em>\u00a0and at the same time has regard to<em>\u00a0information diffusion models<\/em>\u00a0in network systems.<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Introduction<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p><strong><em>Key terms<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Currently, as never before in human history, \u201ceverything is interconnected\u201d through ICT (<em>Information and Communication Technologies<\/em>) networks and systems, creating the so-called\u00a0<strong>cyberspace<\/strong>. The term \u201ccyberspace\u201d was coined by the American science fiction writer, William Gibson, who tackled the issue of the world dominated by omnipresent and very cheap advanced technology. It is difficult to talk about a universal definition of cyberspace. One of the most common is the definition from the publications of the US DoD (<em>Department of Defense<\/em>) [24], [25], e.g. \u201c<em>it is the space for creation, collection, processing and exchange of data, information and knowledge created by ICT systems and networks (including the\u00a0<\/em><strong><em>Internet<\/em><\/strong><em>), together with external objects (e.g. users) interacting with such systems<\/em>\u201d. An important issue from the point of view of the topics discussed in this paper is the fact that cyberspace constitutes a main part of the\u00a0<strong>information environment<\/strong>\u00a0of modern man and, thanks to popularization of social media, it is treated as the new social sphere where \u201cpeople meet\u201d. The concept of cyberspace was popularized with the development of the Internet, and therefore, these terms are often used as synonyms.<\/p>\n<p>Another important term is the\u00a0<strong>situation awareness<\/strong>\u00a0[26] defined as the \u201c<em>cyclical perception of the status of the information environment, the comprehension of the meaning of particular components of the information environment and the projection (forecast) of its future status on the basis thereof to take appropriate decisions, and hence, actions that have an impact on the new status of the information environment<\/em>\u201d. The concept of the situation awareness allows to define\u00a0<strong>information operations<\/strong>\u00a0as operations on the information environment in order to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>[offensive perspective] interfere with the process of achieving situation awareness of the opponent and hence influencing the opponent\u2019s decision\u2019 making process;<\/li>\n<li>[defensive perspective] do not permit to interfere with the process of achieving one\u2019s own situation awareness and hence making it impossible to influence one\u2019s own decision-making process by the opponent.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong><em>The changing face of Warfare<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The \u201c<em>wars of the future<\/em>\u201d will be mainly carried out in cyberspace, which constitutes a key element of the modern information environment. Additionally, the \u201ctraditional\u201d cybernetic operations (<em>CyberOps<\/em>) will be more and more often synchronized with the information operations (<em>InfoOps<\/em>), creating de facto one collective operation in cyberspace. The battlefield will be information and data processing systems, thus, not only hard ICT infrastructure (<em>CyberOps<\/em>), but everything that is \u201cconnected\u201d thereto, including people \u2013 i.e. \u201cbrains performing cognitive processes\u201d (<em>InfoOps<\/em>). While awareness of technical threats is systematically raised and managed, awareness of the seriousness of threats at the information level is still insufficient.<\/p>\n<p><strong><em>Evolution of the Internet<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The\u00a0<strong>Internet<\/strong>, as many other breakthrough technologies, emerged in response to the needs of the US Armed Forces and was initially supposed to be distributed command &amp; control system used for resisting mass physical attacks. From the army, the Internet has come a long way to universities, companies and finally became widely available to the people.\u00a0 The history of the Internet\u2019s development, in terms of both technology and utility, is tremendously interesting. From the perspective of the issues discussed in this paper, it is necessary to indicate the milestones defined as \u2013\u00a0<strong><em>Web1.0<\/em><\/strong>,\u00a0<strong><em>Web2.0<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong><em>Web3.0<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 which allow us to understand the journey that the Internet has made in terms of technological development and its future destination. Therefore, in a nutshell and with some simplification, the subsequent \u201cversions\u201d of the Internet may be characterized in the following manner:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Web1.0<\/em>\u00a0is the\u00a0<em>read-only web<\/em>, where a relatively narrow group of creators of content published on web portals; the rest of network users are \u201cconsumers\u201d who may basically view content (sometimes with slight exceptions, e.g. adding comments by portal visitors). From a historical point of view, it is the oldest \u201cculture\u201d of using the Internet, even though still present, e.g. the majority of modern web portals with news have this character.<\/li>\n<li><em>Web2.0<\/em>\u00a0is the\u00a0<em>read-write web<\/em>, where the boundaries between the role of the \u201ccontent creator\u201d and \u201ccontent consumer\u201d are blurred. Web portals are replaced with web platforms, which create space for communications understood in a broader sense between the users that are both \u201ccontent creators\u201d and \u201ccontent consumers\u201d. Such \u201cculture\u201d of using the Internet is currently very common. On the basis of\u00a0<em>Web2.0<\/em>\u00a0concept, many online auction platforms (e.g.\u00a0<em>eBay<\/em>), social networking services (e.g.\u00a0<em>YouTube<\/em>,\u00a0<em>Facebook<\/em>,\u00a0<em>Twitter<\/em>),\u00a0<em>Wikipedia<\/em>\u00a0and other widely used systems were created.<\/li>\n<li><em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0is also the\u00a0<em>read-write web<\/em>, being the upgraded version of\u00a0<em>Web2.0<\/em>\u00a0thanks to\u00a0<strong>artificial intelligence<\/strong>, aimed at ensuring better understanding of the needs and interests of web users.\u00a0 Web platforms migrate towards the \u201cculture\u201d of intelligent web platforms, thus, it is possible to recommend users \u201ccustomized\u201d content, with little or no effort on the part of such users. The content is customized by profiling users, which \u2013 as it turns out \u2013 has far-reaching consequences and becomes a sensitive issue.<\/li>\n<li><em>Web4.0<\/em>\u00a0is the hypothetical \u201cculture\u201d of the Internet in the future, when all devices are actually connected to the global network as a result of dissemination of the concept known as the\u00a0<strong>Internet of Things<\/strong>\u00a0(IoT). The intelligent web platforms will be integrated into \u201c<strong><em>one body<\/em><\/strong>\u201d, allowing exchange of data, information and knowledge, without any present limitations (integration issues), including breakthrough in terms of possibilities provided by artificial intelligence understood as the transition from the current\u00a0<strong>narrow artificial intelligence<\/strong>\u00a0to the visionary concept of the\u00a0<strong>general artificial intelligence<\/strong>. Finally,\u00a0<em>Web 4.0<\/em>, defined as a\u00a0<strong>symbiotic network<\/strong>, is supposed to eliminate all present obstacles in the man-machine communications, which are related to unnatural interfaces, e.g. keyboard, mouse. Contemporary visionaries (i.a. Ray Kurzweil presenting the concept of\u00a0<em>Singularity<\/em>) predict that in the middle of the 21st century people will be able or even will have to connect their brains to computers. The projects allowing to connect a human brain to a computer are not fantasy. Successful research has been carried out for many years now, using, among other things, EEG (<em>Electroencephalography<\/em>) to communicate with paralyzed persons or to control movement of artificial limbs. Furthermore, a number of ambitious projects connecting brains with computers have been launched to not only control the device, but also to record \u201cthoughts\u201d on an external data carrier for various purposes. Such projects are developed by Elon Musk\u2019s\u00a0<em>Neuralink<\/em>\u00a0and DARPA (<em>Defense Advanced Research Project Agency<\/em>).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In summary, the immersion into cyberspace is increasing, hence, the impact of cyberspace on a human being in the physical world is also growing. Therefore, we are moving towards the blurring of the boundaries between physical entities and their Avatars in cyberspace.<\/p>\n<p><strong><em>Web3.0 and its effects<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Contemporary cyberspace users constitute nearly 60% of population (over 4.3 billion people). The majority of Internet users (over 3.4 billion) are active users of social media, who use mobile devices as the interface (over 3.2 billion). Currently, web platforms have become the norm, thus, the Internet reached\u00a0<em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0level of \u201cculture\u201d, where many users are almost \u201cpermanently connected\u201d. Being\u00a0<strong>online<\/strong>\u00a0has become a key need, in particular for the so-called\u00a0<em>digital natives<\/em>\u00a0\u2013 i.e. a generation of people who do not know the world without the Internet. However, the need for being online is also becoming more widespread among older generations that are trying to meet the expectations of the surrounding world, i.e.\u00a0<em>digital immigrants<\/em>.<\/p>\n<p>Social media, where \u2013 as already mentioned \u2013 \u201cpeople meet\u201d, constitute a fundamental element of the information society of modern man. For many users, social media are the only source of information about the surrounding world. The role of social media is currently invaluable as regards their influence on public opinion, perception of reality and views of individuals, social groups or even whole societies [2][6]. The problem is currently subject to public debate, which seems a bit late (which we cannot change now) and held mostly by and from the perspective of the aforementioned digital immigrants, using only qualitative studies.<\/p>\n<p>The users of the\u00a0<em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0\u201cculture\u201d generate large amounts of data and huge traffic on the Internet. To control such information noise as well as to find the \u201c<em>source of truth<\/em>\u201d and \u201c<em>source of falsehood<\/em>\u201d becomes a real challenge. Nonetheless, social media do have impact on how the majority of society derive the information, consume it and share it. It turns out that the process is very fast and in many cases blind, even mindless. Therefore, it is impossible to verify the information and its sources. Social media have transformed online communication into interactive dialog whose participants feel the need to express themselves and articulate \u201ctheir\u201d opinions and beliefs, seeking for approval or even acclaim. With the above in mind, it is difficult to have a merit-based discourse. The communication in social media is mainly based on emotions, which are stimulated by natural instincts, such as:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><em>confirmation bias<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 preferred contents confirm present opinions and beliefs;<\/li>\n<li><strong><em>similarity attraction effect<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 establishing contacts with persons having similar opinions and beliefs.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Therefore, social media are full of the so-called\u00a0<strong><em>social bubbles<\/em><\/strong>, i.e. communities with usually antagonistic opinions that tend to minimize mutual interactions related to the actual communication. What is more, the\u00a0<em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0\u201cculture\u201d using intelligent web platforms creates for its users the so-called\u00a0<strong><em>filter bubbles<\/em><\/strong>, which intensifies the aforesaid appearance of the\u00a0<em>social bubbles<\/em>. Unbiased (as it may seem) and censor free interactive conversations in social media unexpectedly lead to unusual social polarization. In conclusion, the\u00a0<em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0\u201cculture\u201d seems to be fertile ground for all types of manipulation of information and its users. What drives manipulation are the so-called\u00a0<strong><em>information disorders<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0disseminated in social media.<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Disinformation<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p><strong><em>Static approach<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Currently, many research centers as well as public and private institutions are involved in the process of classification of\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em>.\u00a0 According to one of the general taxonomies, the\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em>\u00a0may be classified in the following manner [23]:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>false, misleading information (<em>mis-information<\/em>);<\/li>\n<li>information causing damage\/pain (<em>mal-information<\/em>);<\/li>\n<li>intentionally misleading information that may cause damage\/pain (<em>dis-information<\/em>).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The subject of further interest is the so-called\u00a0<strong>disinformation<\/strong>\u00a0which refers to the information that may have characteristics of both\u00a0<em>mis-information<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0<em>mal-information<\/em>\u00a0or just one of them. In qualitative terms,\u00a0<strong>disinformation is defined as the information that may create an image of reality not necessarily in accordance with the facts<\/strong>. Depending on the\u00a0<em>intent to deceive<\/em>\u00a0[22], the types of disinformation may be as follows:\u00a0<em>satire\/parody<\/em>\u00a0\ud83e\udc6a\u00a0<em>false connections<\/em>\u00a0\ud83e\udc6a\u00a0<em>misleading content<\/em>\u00a0\ud83e\udc6a\u00a0<em>false context<\/em>\u00a0\ud83e\udc6a\u00a0<em>imposter content<\/em>\u00a0\ud83e\udc6a\u00a0<em>manipulated content<\/em>\u00a0\ud83e\udc6a\u00a0<em>fully fabricated content<\/em>. In quantitative terms, disinformation may be defined as the predefined amount of information aimed at creating the image of reality on a specific subject, including complete lack of information or information noise as well as flood of information causing information overload in recipients.<\/p>\n<p>In light of the above, information disorders may be classified in different ways and take different forms, e.g. text, graphics, audio recordings, videos. As commonly understood, such information disorders are called\u00a0<strong><em>fakes<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0or\u00a0<strong><em>fake news<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0if they refer to current affairs.\u00a0<em>Fakes<\/em>\u00a0often seem to be true news, only after their analysis and verification of their source, it is possible to state that they are\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em>. On the other hand,\u00a0<strong><em>deepfakes<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0have become an absolute novelty and huge risk recently. While\u00a0<em>fakes<\/em>\u00a0are created entirely by people, of course using certain tools, such as text or graphics editors,\u00a0<em>deepfakes<\/em>\u00a0are generated automatically, using advanced algorithms, in particular\u00a0<em>machine learning algorithms<\/em>, and more precisely \u2013\u00a0<em>deep neural networks<\/em>, image recognition and speech synthesis. Of course, some tools to automate the process for recognizing\u00a0<em>deepfakes<\/em>\u00a0are also designed.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, as already mentioned, the\u00a0<em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0\u201cculture\u201d truly \u201cdiscourages\u201d users from critical thinking. Therefore, a system approach to eliminate\u00a0<em>fakes<\/em>\u00a0is essential, which is reflected, among other things, in the form of people or whole institutions responsible for controlling facts (<strong><em>fact checkers<\/em><\/strong>) at different levels.<\/p>\n<p><strong><em>Dynamic approach<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>Disinformation is also defined as the process of manipulation, intentional misleading, casting doubts about the facts, and using different types of\u00a0<\/strong><strong><em>information disorders<\/em><\/strong>. Therefore, disinformation is an offensive information operation, i.e. interfering with the process of obtaining situational awareness, which is aimed at creating a specific image of reality in the recipient, hence, making the recipient to take (or not to take) the decision in accordance with the assumptions of the center planning the information operation. Disinformation constitutes, in its essence, interference in the decision-making process of the recipient (object or group of objects), also by hiding certain events or information about such events or generating information noise to confuse the recipient. Therefore, the disinformation process is based on the information which is not always false but on the whole range of the previously defined\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em>. At this point, it should be mentioned that the disinformation process to a large extent resembles negotiations between the parties, marketing campaigns, including advertising and many other human activities. In this way the disinformation process occurs wherever people have incomplete or uncertain knowledge about the subject of consideration including architectural design and engineering optimization along with problems formulation, construction of computational methods and software development.<\/p>\n<p>Advanced information operations are based on the previous recognition of the recipient (object or group of objects), to whom they are addressed. As a result of the recognition, the profiles are created, which are\u00a0<em>de facto<\/em>\u00a0parametrized recipient subjectivity models on the basis of which the recipient shapes their image of reality. The construction of the subjectivity models is a complex process, which may consist in the \u201cprofiling through active communication\u201d. On the basis of the profiles, the attacker shapes the information environment of the attacked object to create the image of reality (in some way imposed by the attacker) in line with the goals of the attacker. Therefore, the attacker gains an informational advantage, which allows to influence the decision-making processes of the attacked object. It should be also mentioned that according to the above-described pattern, the contents are customized in the\u00a0<em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0\u201cculture\u201d on the intelligent web platforms by way of user profiling. In this approach, the essence of the disinformation process is clearly visible and it is not only the dissemination of false information.<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Modeling of information operations<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p><strong><em>Theory of reflexive control<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>One of the most advanced mathematical models of information operations is the\u00a0<strong><em>theory of reflexive control<\/em><\/strong>, developed in the Soviet Union by Vladimir Lefebvre [8], [9], [10], [11], in the 1960s. The Russian concept of the\u00a0<em>reflexive control<\/em>\u00a0is similar to the American concept of\u00a0<em>perception management<\/em>, however, with significantly more developed formal apparatus and probably more advanced tools from the field of, among other things, psychology and social psychology. The starting point for the\u00a0<em>reflexive control process<\/em>\u00a0is to build a specific model of the object to be controlled. The object is usually a person, i.e. the object that thinks (is reflexive), hence, creates subjective images (models) describing the world, including their beliefs and desires.<\/p>\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1027 aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/serwer1894324.home.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/07\/Fig.1-1024x428.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"1024\" height=\"428\" \/><figcaption>Fig. 1. (left)\u00a0<em>Reflexion of the first kind<\/em>; (b)\u00a0<em>Reflexion of the second kind<\/em>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The foundations of the construction of such a specific model are connected with the concept of\u00a0<strong><em>reflexion<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0understood as the ability to adopt a perspective of an observer of one\u2019s own beliefs and desires. The so defined\u00a0<em>reflexion<\/em>\u00a0is the\u00a0<strong><em>reflexion of the first kind<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0or\u00a0<strong><em>self-reflexion<\/em><\/strong>. The core of\u00a0<em>reflexion<\/em>\u00a0is its recursive character. The concept of\u00a0<em>reflexion<\/em>\u00a0was generalized by Lefebvre and, in the context of the\u00a0<em>reflective control<\/em>, it is understood as the ability to adopt the perspective of the observer of one\u2019s own and another reflective object\u2019s beliefs and desires. The so defined\u00a0<em>reflexion<\/em>\u00a0is the\u00a0<strong><em>reflexion of the second kind<\/em><\/strong>, which leads to the concept of the\u00a0<strong><em>hierarchy of realities<\/em><\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>When building the model of the object subject to\u00a0<em>reflective control<\/em>, it is of key importance to include the aforesaid concept of\u00a0<em>reflexion<\/em>\u00a0of the modeled object. Object X that wants to control object Y constructs the model of the world image (model) built by object Y at a specific level of the\u00a0<em>hierarchy of realities<\/em>. On the basis of such a model, object X prepares\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em>\u00a0dedicated to object Y, aimed at encouraging object Y to make the decision as expected by object X and in such a manner so that object Y is convinced that makes this decision independently and that the decision will be the best possible decision for object Y.\u00a0<strong>The essence of reflective control is the change of approach from an attempt to predict the decision-making processes of the opponent on influencing to the decision-making processes of the opponent by using\u00a0<\/strong><strong><em>information disorders<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0[5], [18].<\/p>\n<p>If the process of\u00a0<em>reflexive control<\/em>\u00a0is executed secretly and object X properly \u201cread\u201d the subjective world image of object Y, then each portion of\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em>\u00a0(marked as\u00a0<em>id<\/em>\u00a0in Fig. 2) sent from object X to object Y constitutes additional information for object X about object Y. It is also interesting that object Y may reverse the process so that it is possible to abandon the role of the controlled object and assume the role of the object controlling object X, while still confirming object X in its belief that it has full control of the\u00a0<em>reflexive control process<\/em>.<\/p>\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1028 aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/serwer1894324.home.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/07\/Fig.2-1024x494.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"1024\" height=\"494\" \/><figcaption>Fig. 2. The concept of reflexive control process.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong><em>Theory of disinformation<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The modeling of information operations carried out in social media, the distinction between the controlling object and the controlled object is not sufficient. In such case, it is helpful to use the\u00a0<strong><em>theory of disinformation<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0developed by Vladimir Volkoff [20], according to which different actors playing certain roles in the disinformation process:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Commissioning Party<\/em>\u00a0(<em>Client<\/em>) \u2013 a person or a group that derives benefits from the disinformation process;<\/li>\n<li><em>Agent of Influence<\/em>\u00a0\u2013 an entity executing the commissioned disinformation process;<\/li>\n<li><em>Theme<\/em>\u00a0(<em>Leitmotif<\/em>) \u2013 the main\u00a0<em>id\u00e9e fixe<\/em>\u00a0being a specific narrative for the purpose of the disinformation process;<\/li>\n<li><em>Supports<\/em>\u00a0(<em>Props<\/em>) \u2013 events (true or false) that are \u201cfuel\u201d for the disinformation process;<\/li>\n<li><em>Transmitters<\/em>\u00a0(<em>Carriers<\/em>) \u2013 objects (including media) connected with the\u00a0<em>Commissioning Party<\/em>\u00a0or the\u00a0<em>Agent of Influence<\/em>\u00a0and intentionally propagating\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em>Resonators<\/em>\u00a0\u2013 objects (including media) not connected with the\u00a0<em>Commissioning Party<\/em>\u00a0or the\u00a0<em>Agent of Influence<\/em>\u00a0and unintentionally propagating\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em>;<\/li>\n<li><em>Target Group<\/em>\u00a0(<em>Intended Audience<\/em>) \u2013 a person or a group being the target of disinformation process.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In case of social media, many objects playing different roles participate in the disinformation process. What is also important is the fact that in this information environment, it is very easy to reach people who propagate disinformation on the basis of the\u00a0<em>Resonator<\/em>s. It is equally easy to obtain\u00a0<em>Transmitters<\/em>\u00a0via\u00a0<strong><em>social bots<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0and whole\u00a0<strong><em>social botnets<\/em><\/strong>, which may be constructed in a relatively easy manner, with little technical knowledge, or which may be bought in the form of a service. Due to the\u00a0<em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0\u201cculture\u201d, the so-called\u00a0<em>Resonators<\/em>\u00a0are widely available and have actual impact on the disinformation process; often because of their number, they may completely take the role of\u00a0<em>Transmitters<\/em>.<\/p>\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1029 aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/serwer1894324.home.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/07\/Fig.3.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"878\" height=\"617\" \/><figcaption>Fig. 3. Dissemination of disinformation in social media.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The main issue in case of the modeling of information operations in social media is to understand the dissemination (diffusion) process of the phenomena in this environment [4], [5], including assessment of the role and significance of particular \u201cnodes\u201d in the network and forecast of diffusion dynamics and reach of the information being a product of the information operation. It should be also mentioned that there are fundamental differences at the model level and technical level of the disinformation process when the object of the information attack is a single object or a group of objects.<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Summary<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>Reality at the information level is more and more difficult to verify and easier to manipulate because of cyberspace. Due to wide access to the Internet, social media started to play more significant role in the shaping of public opinion on basically every subject and to broadly impact the way of world perception by people, social groups or whole societies. The awareness of risks at the information level is still limited.<\/p>\n<p>The theory of\u00a0<em>reflective control<\/em>\u00a0facilitates the analysis of the decision-making process with respect to both own and the opponent\u2019s decisions due to a possibility of manipulating the situation awareness. The theory enjoys quite a rich history and strong position among analysts of national security both in Russia and the United States.\u00a0 Many Western analysts see it as the Russian alternative to\u00a0<strong><em>game theory<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0[21]. At this point, it should be noted that the\u00a0<strong><em>hypergame theory<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0[1], [7], [13], [19], also referred to as\u00a0<strong><em>metagames<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0or\u00a0<strong><em>higher-order games<\/em><\/strong>, which first appeared in the 1970s, may be perceived as the Western response to the\u00a0<em>theory of reflective control<\/em>. Nowadays, the theory of\u00a0<em>reflective control<\/em>\u00a0is being developed \u2013 to a certain degree \u2013 independently by several research groups that propose a different formal apparatus to describe and analyze\u00a0<em>reflective control<\/em>\u00a0[12], [14], [15], [16], [17]. One of the branches may be the aforementioned\u00a0<em>hypergame theory<\/em>. At the same time, information operations are also modeling using the traditional\u00a0<em>game theory<\/em>\u00a0[3].<\/p>\n<h2><strong>References<\/strong><\/h2>\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container\">\n[1] Bennett P., Toward a Theory of Hypergames, Omega 5, (1977) 749\u2013751.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container\">\n[2] Bond R, Fariss Ch., Jones J., Kramer A., Marlow C., Settle J. Fowler J., A 61-Million-Person Experiment in Social Influence and Political Mobilization, Nature 489, (2012) 295\u2013298.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n[3] Jormakka J., M\u00f6ls\u00e4 J., Modelling Information Warfare as a Game, Journal of Information Warfare, Vol. 4, Issue 2, (2005) 12\u201325.<\/p>\n[4] Kasprzyk R., Diffusion in Networks, Journal of Telecommunications and Information Technology, No 2, (2012) 99\u2013106.<\/p>\n[5] Kasprzyk R., The Essence of Reflexive Control and Diffusion of Information in the Context of Information Environment Security, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, Springer, Vol. 835, (2019) 720\u2013728.<\/p>\n[6] Kramer A., Guillory J., Hancock J., Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks, PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(24), (2014) 8788\u20138790.<\/p>\n[7] Kovach N.S., Gibson A.S., Lamont G.B., Hypergame Theory: A Model for Conflict, Misperception, and Deception, Game Theory, Vol. 2015, Article ID 570639 (2015).<\/p>\n[8] Lefebvre V., Basic ideas of reflexive games logic, Problemy Issledovania Sistem i Structur, Moscow, AN USSR Press, (1965).<\/p>\n[9] Lefebvre V., Baranov P., Lepsky V., Internal Currency in Reflexive Games, Izvestia, AN USSR, Tekhnicheskaya Kibernetika, No. 4, (1969).<\/p>\n[10] Lefebvre V., Algebra of Conscience, second enlarged edition, Kluwer, Holland, (2001).<\/p>\n[11] Lefebvre V., Lectures on reflexive Game Theory, Leaf &amp; Oaks Publisher, Los Angeles, USA, (2010).<\/p>\n[12] Novikov D., Chkartishvili A., Refleksivnye igry (Reflexive games), SINTEG, Moscow, (2003).<\/p>\n[13] Mateski M., Mazzuchi T., Sarkani S., The Hypergame Perception Model: A Diagrammatic Approach to Modeling Perception Misperception and Deception, Military Operations Research, Vol. 15, No 2, (2010) 21\u201337.<\/p>\n[14] Schreider Yu., Continously-valued logics Lefm as languages of reflexion, Nauchnotekhnicheskaya Informatsia, No 1\u20132 (1999).<\/p>\n[15] Taran T., Model of Reflexive Behavior in Conflict Situation, Journal of Computer and Systems Sciences International, No 1, (1998).<\/p>\n[16] Taran T., Many-valued Boolean Model of Reflexive Agent, Multi-Valued Logic, No 7 (2001).<\/p>\n[17] Taran T., Boolean models of reflexive control and their application for describing information warfare in social-economical systems, Avtomatika i Telemekhanika, No 11, (2004).<\/p>\n[18] Thomas T., Russia\u2019s Reflexive Control Theory and the Military, Journal of Slavic Military Studies 17, (2004) 237\u2013256.<\/p>\n[19] Trudolubov A., Decisions on dependency nets and reflexive polynomials\u201d, VI Symposium po Kibernetike, Part III, Tibilisi, (1972).<\/p>\n[20] Volkoff V., Petite histoire de la d\u00e9sinformation, Les Editions du Rocher, (1999).<\/p>\n[21] Von Neumann J., Morgenstern O., Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, John Wiley and Sons, (1944).<\/p>\n[22] Wardle C., Fake news. It\u2019s complicated\u201d, https:\/\/firstdraftnews.com:443\/fake-news-complicated\/, (2017).<\/p>\n[23] Wardle C., Derakhshan H., Information Disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policymaking, Council of Europe, Vol. 9 (2017).<\/p>\n[24] JP 3-13, Cyberspace Operations, U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 8 June 2018.<\/p>\n[25] JP 3-13, Information Operations, U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 20 November 2014.<\/p>\n[26] https:\/\/www.definitions.net\/definition\/situation+awareness.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<hr \/>\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-file aligncenter\">\n<h2>Read more from InformNapalm:<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/prigozhins-impersonator-in-lithuania\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Prigozhin\u2019s impersonator exploited in a failed information operation in Lithuania<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/the-influence-operation-run-by-yevgeny-prigozhin\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">The influence operation run by Yevgeny Prigozhin, who was just added to the FBI Most Wanted list, has new targets right in the heart of Europe<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/belarusian-kgb\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Belarusian KGB in the city of Grodno detained Dzianis Ivashin, a Belarusian journalist and an InformNapalm volunteer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/nato-targeted-with-false-narratives\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">NATO targeted with false narratives about \u2018offensive\u2019 exercises and stirring protests in Russia<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/russian-army-shows-how-it-trains-to-violate-international-humanitarian-law\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Russian army shows how it trains to violate international humanitarian law<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/participants-of-the-russian-spec-ops\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Derkach Six \u2013 overlooked participants of the Russian special operation \u201cDerkach tapes\u201d \u2013 Shariy, Portnov, Kolomoisky and others<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/protection-of-russian-world-will-be-priority-for-russian-authorities-says-peskov-he-also-reminded-about-russian-soft-power\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Protection of \u201cRussian World\u201d will be priority for Russian authorities, says Peskov. He also reminded about Russian \u2018soft power\u2019<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/ukrainian-counterintelligence\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Ukrainian counterintelligence exposed the FSB agent network plotting sabotage and abductions<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/medvedchuks-tv-channels\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Medvedchuk\u2019s TV channels closure in Ukraine is a counteraction to Russian hybrid aggression, not an attack on freedom of speech<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/sweden-predicts-potential-hybrid-aggression-by-russia-video\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Sweden predicts potential hybrid aggression by Russia (VIDEO)<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"ls-is-cached lazyloaded aligncenter\" style=\"color: #333333;font-style: normal;font-weight: 300\" src=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2015\/12\/InformNapalm_logo_05.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"80\" height=\"37\" data-src=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2015\/12\/InformNapalm_logo_05.png\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><em><strong>InformNapalm Partner in Lithuania: Res Publica &#8211; Civic Resilience Center<\/strong><\/em><em style=\"font-weight: 300\"><strong>.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\">InformNapalm social media pages:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/informnapalm24en\/\">Facebook<\/a>\u00a0\/\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/twitter.com\/en_informnapalm\">Twitter\u00a0<\/a>\/\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/t.me\/informnapalm\">Telegram<\/a><\/p>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/ua.informnapalm.org\/posts\/1803410319799958\">Support InformNapalm<\/a><\/h2>\n<p><em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/Respublic\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-660 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/lt\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/15\/2020\/06\/Logo-Res-Publica.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"63\" height=\"63\" \/><\/a><\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Article first time published by Info Ops Polska Foundation. Authors: Rafa\u0142 Kasprzyk, Wydzia\u0142 Cybernetyki, Wojskowa Akademia Techniczna.\u00a0Info&#8230;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":116,"featured_media":16517,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"om_disable_all_campaigns":false,"_uf_show_specific_survey":0,"_uf_disable_surveys":false,"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[533,528,2],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-16511","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-misc","category-news","category-summaries"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v26.9 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Mathematical Models of Information Operations<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"The changes occurring in the contemporary world are related to the dynamics of the development of modern technologies and its impact on life of almost every person. Currently, as never before in human history, \u201ceverything is interconnected\u201d through ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) networks and systems, creating the so-called cyberspace. Due to wide access to the Internet, social media started to play more significant role in the shaping of public opinion on basically every subject and to broadly impact the way of world perception by people, social groups or whole societies. Current studies presented in the paper, center, around the consistent model of information operations based on the\u00a0theory of reflective control,\u00a0disinformation theory\u00a0and at the same time has regard to\u00a0information diffusion models\u00a0in network systems.\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Mathematical Models of Information Operations\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"The changes occurring in the contemporary world are related to the dynamics of the development of modern technologies and its impact on life of almost every person. Currently, as never before in human history, \u201ceverything is interconnected\u201d through ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) networks and systems, creating the so-called cyberspace. Due to wide access to the Internet, social media started to play more significant role in the shaping of public opinion on basically every subject and to broadly impact the way of world perception by people, social groups or whole societies. Current studies presented in the paper, center, around the consistent model of information operations based on the\u00a0theory of reflective control,\u00a0disinformation theory\u00a0and at the same time has regard to\u00a0information diffusion models\u00a0in network systems.\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"InformNapalm.org (English)\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2021-03-17T07:36:43+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2021-03-17T07:40:41+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2021\/03\/Fig.3_1-e1615803030817.jpg\" \/>\n\t<meta property=\"og:image:width\" content=\"642\" \/>\n\t<meta property=\"og:image:height\" content=\"331\" \/>\n\t<meta property=\"og:image:type\" content=\"image\/jpeg\" \/>\n<meta name=\"author\" content=\"Res Publica\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Written by\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"Res Publica\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:label2\" content=\"Est. reading time\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data2\" content=\"20 minutes\" \/>\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\">{\"@context\":\"https:\/\/schema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"Article\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/#article\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/\"},\"author\":{\"name\":\"Res Publica\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/#\/schema\/person\/b92052c22423b3777d2d23e330a345ac\"},\"headline\":\"Mathematical Models of Information Operations\",\"datePublished\":\"2021-03-17T07:36:43+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2021-03-17T07:40:41+00:00\",\"mainEntityOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/\"},\"wordCount\":4236,\"commentCount\":0,\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2021\/03\/Fig.3_1-e1615803030817.jpg\",\"articleSection\":[\"Misc\",\"News\",\"Summaries\"],\"inLanguage\":\"en-US\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"CommentAction\",\"name\":\"Comment\",\"target\":[\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/#respond\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/\",\"name\":\"Mathematical Models of Information Operations\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/#website\"},\"primaryImageOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/#primaryimage\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2021\/03\/Fig.3_1-e1615803030817.jpg\",\"datePublished\":\"2021-03-17T07:36:43+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2021-03-17T07:40:41+00:00\",\"author\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/#\/schema\/person\/b92052c22423b3777d2d23e330a345ac\"},\"description\":\"The changes occurring in the contemporary world are related to the dynamics of the development of modern technologies and its impact on life of almost every person. Currently, as never before in human history, \u201ceverything is interconnected\u201d through ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) networks and systems, creating the so-called cyberspace. Due to wide access to the Internet, social media started to play more significant role in the shaping of public opinion on basically every subject and to broadly impact the way of world perception by people, social groups or whole societies. 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Currently, as never before in human history, \u201ceverything is interconnected\u201d through ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) networks and systems, creating the so-called cyberspace. Due to wide access to the Internet, social media started to play more significant role in the shaping of public opinion on basically every subject and to broadly impact the way of world perception by people, social groups or whole societies. Current studies presented in the paper, center, around the consistent model of information operations based on the\u00a0theory of reflective control,\u00a0disinformation theory\u00a0and at the same time has regard to\u00a0information diffusion models\u00a0in network systems.","og_url":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/","og_site_name":"InformNapalm.org (English)","article_published_time":"2021-03-17T07:36:43+00:00","article_modified_time":"2021-03-17T07:40:41+00:00","og_image":[{"width":642,"height":331,"url":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2021\/03\/Fig.3_1-e1615803030817.jpg","type":"image\/jpeg"}],"author":"Res Publica","twitter_misc":{"Written by":"Res Publica","Est. reading time":"20 minutes"},"schema":{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@graph":[{"@type":"Article","@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/#article","isPartOf":{"@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/"},"author":{"name":"Res Publica","@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/#\/schema\/person\/b92052c22423b3777d2d23e330a345ac"},"headline":"Mathematical Models of Information Operations","datePublished":"2021-03-17T07:36:43+00:00","dateModified":"2021-03-17T07:40:41+00:00","mainEntityOfPage":{"@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/"},"wordCount":4236,"commentCount":0,"image":{"@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/#primaryimage"},"thumbnailUrl":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2021\/03\/Fig.3_1-e1615803030817.jpg","articleSection":["Misc","News","Summaries"],"inLanguage":"en-US","potentialAction":[{"@type":"CommentAction","name":"Comment","target":["https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/#respond"]}]},{"@type":"WebPage","@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/","url":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/","name":"Mathematical Models of Information Operations","isPartOf":{"@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/#website"},"primaryImageOfPage":{"@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/#primaryimage"},"image":{"@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/#primaryimage"},"thumbnailUrl":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2021\/03\/Fig.3_1-e1615803030817.jpg","datePublished":"2021-03-17T07:36:43+00:00","dateModified":"2021-03-17T07:40:41+00:00","author":{"@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/#\/schema\/person\/b92052c22423b3777d2d23e330a345ac"},"description":"The changes occurring in the contemporary world are related to the dynamics of the development of modern technologies and its impact on life of almost every person. Currently, as never before in human history, \u201ceverything is interconnected\u201d through ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) networks and systems, creating the so-called cyberspace. Due to wide access to the Internet, social media started to play more significant role in the shaping of public opinion on basically every subject and to broadly impact the way of world perception by people, social groups or whole societies. Current studies presented in the paper, center, around the consistent model of information operations based on the\u00a0theory of reflective control,\u00a0disinformation theory\u00a0and at the same time has regard to\u00a0information diffusion models\u00a0in network systems.","breadcrumb":{"@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/#breadcrumb"},"inLanguage":"en-US","potentialAction":[{"@type":"ReadAction","target":["https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/"]}]},{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"en-US","@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/#primaryimage","url":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2021\/03\/Fig.3_1-e1615803030817.jpg","contentUrl":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2021\/03\/Fig.3_1-e1615803030817.jpg","width":642,"height":331},{"@type":"BreadcrumbList","@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/#breadcrumb","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Home","item":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Mathematical Models of Information Operations"}]},{"@type":"WebSite","@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/#website","url":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/","name":"InformNapalm.org (English)","description":"Latest News from Ukraine","potentialAction":[{"@type":"SearchAction","target":{"@type":"EntryPoint","urlTemplate":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/?s={search_term_string}"},"query-input":{"@type":"PropertyValueSpecification","valueRequired":true,"valueName":"search_term_string"}}],"inLanguage":"en-US"},{"@type":"Person","@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/#\/schema\/person\/b92052c22423b3777d2d23e330a345ac","name":"Res Publica","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"en-US","@id":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/#\/schema\/person\/image\/","url":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/06d8ed74fdd4e52f4f05fa1a92d1b7746d12f80cb431a3d09088dffcb0e93059?s=96&d=mm&r=g","contentUrl":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/06d8ed74fdd4e52f4f05fa1a92d1b7746d12f80cb431a3d09088dffcb0e93059?s=96&d=mm&r=g","caption":"Res Publica"},"url":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/author\/giedrius\/"}]}},"post_src":"<em>Article first time published by <strong><a href=\"https:\/\/infoops.pl\/mathematical-models-of-information-operations\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Info Ops Polska Foundation. <\/a><\/strong>Authors: <strong>Rafa\u0142 Kasprzyk, Wydzia\u0142 Cybernetyki, Wojskowa Akademia Techniczna.<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0<em>Info OPS Polska Foundation was established for the implementation of projects aimed at ensuring the safety of the information environment. The project includes support for the development of the capacity to identify information and psychological operations, including conducting analyses of manipulation processes of the Polish-speaking information environment: disinformation, propaganda, social engineering and cyber activities.<\/em>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<h2><strong>Abstract<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nThe changes occurring in the contemporary world are related to the dynamics of the development of modern technologies and its impact on life of almost every person. Currently, as never before in human history, \u201ceverything is interconnected\u201d through ICT (<em>Information and Communication Technologies<\/em>) networks and systems, creating the so-called cyberspace. Due to wide access to the Internet, social media started to play more significant role in the shaping of public opinion on basically every subject and to broadly impact the way of world perception by people, social groups or whole societies. Current studies presented in the paper, center, around the consistent model of information operations based on the\u00a0<em>theory of reflective control<\/em>,\u00a0<em>disinformation theory<\/em>\u00a0and at the same time has regard to<em>\u00a0information diffusion models<\/em>\u00a0in network systems.\r\n<h2><strong>Introduction<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<strong><em>Key terms<\/em><\/strong>\r\n\r\nCurrently, as never before in human history, \u201ceverything is interconnected\u201d through ICT (<em>Information and Communication Technologies<\/em>) networks and systems, creating the so-called\u00a0<strong>cyberspace<\/strong>. The term \u201ccyberspace\u201d was coined by the American science fiction writer, William Gibson, who tackled the issue of the world dominated by omnipresent and very cheap advanced technology. It is difficult to talk about a universal definition of cyberspace. One of the most common is the definition from the publications of the US DoD (<em>Department of Defense<\/em>) [24], [25], e.g. \u201c<em>it is the space for creation, collection, processing and exchange of data, information and knowledge created by ICT systems and networks (including the\u00a0<\/em><strong><em>Internet<\/em><\/strong><em>), together with external objects (e.g. users) interacting with such systems<\/em>\u201d. An important issue from the point of view of the topics discussed in this paper is the fact that cyberspace constitutes a main part of the\u00a0<strong>information environment<\/strong>\u00a0of modern man and, thanks to popularization of social media, it is treated as the new social sphere where \u201cpeople meet\u201d. The concept of cyberspace was popularized with the development of the Internet, and therefore, these terms are often used as synonyms.\r\n\r\nAnother important term is the\u00a0<strong>situation awareness<\/strong>\u00a0[26] defined as the \u201c<em>cyclical perception of the status of the information environment, the comprehension of the meaning of particular components of the information environment and the projection (forecast) of its future status on the basis thereof to take appropriate decisions, and hence, actions that have an impact on the new status of the information environment<\/em>\u201d. The concept of the situation awareness allows to define\u00a0<strong>information operations<\/strong>\u00a0as operations on the information environment in order to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>[offensive perspective] interfere with the process of achieving situation awareness of the opponent and hence influencing the opponent\u2019s decision\u2019 making process;<\/li>\r\n \t<li>[defensive perspective] do not permit to interfere with the process of achieving one\u2019s own situation awareness and hence making it impossible to influence one\u2019s own decision-making process by the opponent.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong><em>The changing face of Warfare<\/em><\/strong>\r\n\r\nThe \u201c<em>wars of the future<\/em>\u201d will be mainly carried out in cyberspace, which constitutes a key element of the modern information environment. Additionally, the \u201ctraditional\u201d cybernetic operations (<em>CyberOps<\/em>) will be more and more often synchronized with the information operations (<em>InfoOps<\/em>), creating de facto one collective operation in cyberspace. The battlefield will be information and data processing systems, thus, not only hard ICT infrastructure (<em>CyberOps<\/em>), but everything that is \u201cconnected\u201d thereto, including people \u2013 i.e. \u201cbrains performing cognitive processes\u201d (<em>InfoOps<\/em>). While awareness of technical threats is systematically raised and managed, awareness of the seriousness of threats at the information level is still insufficient.\r\n\r\n<strong><em>Evolution of the Internet<\/em><\/strong>\r\n\r\nThe\u00a0<strong>Internet<\/strong>, as many other breakthrough technologies, emerged in response to the needs of the US Armed Forces and was initially supposed to be distributed command &amp; control system used for resisting mass physical attacks. From the army, the Internet has come a long way to universities, companies and finally became widely available to the people.\u00a0 The history of the Internet\u2019s development, in terms of both technology and utility, is tremendously interesting. From the perspective of the issues discussed in this paper, it is necessary to indicate the milestones defined as \u2013\u00a0<strong><em>Web1.0<\/em><\/strong>,\u00a0<strong><em>Web2.0<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong><em>Web3.0<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 which allow us to understand the journey that the Internet has made in terms of technological development and its future destination. Therefore, in a nutshell and with some simplification, the subsequent \u201cversions\u201d of the Internet may be characterized in the following manner:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>Web1.0<\/em>\u00a0is the\u00a0<em>read-only web<\/em>, where a relatively narrow group of creators of content published on web portals; the rest of network users are \u201cconsumers\u201d who may basically view content (sometimes with slight exceptions, e.g. adding comments by portal visitors). From a historical point of view, it is the oldest \u201cculture\u201d of using the Internet, even though still present, e.g. the majority of modern web portals with news have this character.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Web2.0<\/em>\u00a0is the\u00a0<em>read-write web<\/em>, where the boundaries between the role of the \u201ccontent creator\u201d and \u201ccontent consumer\u201d are blurred. Web portals are replaced with web platforms, which create space for communications understood in a broader sense between the users that are both \u201ccontent creators\u201d and \u201ccontent consumers\u201d. Such \u201cculture\u201d of using the Internet is currently very common. On the basis of\u00a0<em>Web2.0<\/em>\u00a0concept, many online auction platforms (e.g.\u00a0<em>eBay<\/em>), social networking services (e.g.\u00a0<em>YouTube<\/em>,\u00a0<em>Facebook<\/em>,\u00a0<em>Twitter<\/em>),\u00a0<em>Wikipedia<\/em>\u00a0and other widely used systems were created.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0is also the\u00a0<em>read-write web<\/em>, being the upgraded version of\u00a0<em>Web2.0<\/em>\u00a0thanks to\u00a0<strong>artificial intelligence<\/strong>, aimed at ensuring better understanding of the needs and interests of web users.\u00a0 Web platforms migrate towards the \u201cculture\u201d of intelligent web platforms, thus, it is possible to recommend users \u201ccustomized\u201d content, with little or no effort on the part of such users. The content is customized by profiling users, which \u2013 as it turns out \u2013 has far-reaching consequences and becomes a sensitive issue.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Web4.0<\/em>\u00a0is the hypothetical \u201cculture\u201d of the Internet in the future, when all devices are actually connected to the global network as a result of dissemination of the concept known as the\u00a0<strong>Internet of Things<\/strong>\u00a0(IoT). The intelligent web platforms will be integrated into \u201c<strong><em>one body<\/em><\/strong>\u201d, allowing exchange of data, information and knowledge, without any present limitations (integration issues), including breakthrough in terms of possibilities provided by artificial intelligence understood as the transition from the current\u00a0<strong>narrow artificial intelligence<\/strong>\u00a0to the visionary concept of the\u00a0<strong>general artificial intelligence<\/strong>. Finally,\u00a0<em>Web 4.0<\/em>, defined as a\u00a0<strong>symbiotic network<\/strong>, is supposed to eliminate all present obstacles in the man-machine communications, which are related to unnatural interfaces, e.g. keyboard, mouse. Contemporary visionaries (i.a. Ray Kurzweil presenting the concept of\u00a0<em>Singularity<\/em>) predict that in the middle of the 21st century people will be able or even will have to connect their brains to computers. The projects allowing to connect a human brain to a computer are not fantasy. Successful research has been carried out for many years now, using, among other things, EEG (<em>Electroencephalography<\/em>) to communicate with paralyzed persons or to control movement of artificial limbs. Furthermore, a number of ambitious projects connecting brains with computers have been launched to not only control the device, but also to record \u201cthoughts\u201d on an external data carrier for various purposes. Such projects are developed by Elon Musk\u2019s\u00a0<em>Neuralink<\/em>\u00a0and DARPA (<em>Defense Advanced Research Project Agency<\/em>).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIn summary, the immersion into cyberspace is increasing, hence, the impact of cyberspace on a human being in the physical world is also growing. Therefore, we are moving towards the blurring of the boundaries between physical entities and their Avatars in cyberspace.\r\n\r\n<strong><em>Web3.0 and its effects<\/em><\/strong>\r\n\r\nContemporary cyberspace users constitute nearly 60% of population (over 4.3 billion people). The majority of Internet users (over 3.4 billion) are active users of social media, who use mobile devices as the interface (over 3.2 billion). Currently, web platforms have become the norm, thus, the Internet reached\u00a0<em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0level of \u201cculture\u201d, where many users are almost \u201cpermanently connected\u201d. Being\u00a0<strong>online<\/strong>\u00a0has become a key need, in particular for the so-called\u00a0<em>digital natives<\/em>\u00a0\u2013 i.e. a generation of people who do not know the world without the Internet. However, the need for being online is also becoming more widespread among older generations that are trying to meet the expectations of the surrounding world, i.e.\u00a0<em>digital immigrants<\/em>.\r\n\r\nSocial media, where \u2013 as already mentioned \u2013 \u201cpeople meet\u201d, constitute a fundamental element of the information society of modern man. For many users, social media are the only source of information about the surrounding world. The role of social media is currently invaluable as regards their influence on public opinion, perception of reality and views of individuals, social groups or even whole societies [2][6]. The problem is currently subject to public debate, which seems a bit late (which we cannot change now) and held mostly by and from the perspective of the aforementioned digital immigrants, using only qualitative studies.\r\n\r\nThe users of the\u00a0<em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0\u201cculture\u201d generate large amounts of data and huge traffic on the Internet. To control such information noise as well as to find the \u201c<em>source of truth<\/em>\u201d and \u201c<em>source of falsehood<\/em>\u201d becomes a real challenge. Nonetheless, social media do have impact on how the majority of society derive the information, consume it and share it. It turns out that the process is very fast and in many cases blind, even mindless. Therefore, it is impossible to verify the information and its sources. Social media have transformed online communication into interactive dialog whose participants feel the need to express themselves and articulate \u201ctheir\u201d opinions and beliefs, seeking for approval or even acclaim. With the above in mind, it is difficult to have a merit-based discourse. The communication in social media is mainly based on emotions, which are stimulated by natural instincts, such as:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong><em>confirmation bias<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 preferred contents confirm present opinions and beliefs;<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong><em>similarity attraction effect<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 establishing contacts with persons having similar opinions and beliefs.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nTherefore, social media are full of the so-called\u00a0<strong><em>social bubbles<\/em><\/strong>, i.e. communities with usually antagonistic opinions that tend to minimize mutual interactions related to the actual communication. What is more, the\u00a0<em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0\u201cculture\u201d using intelligent web platforms creates for its users the so-called\u00a0<strong><em>filter bubbles<\/em><\/strong>, which intensifies the aforesaid appearance of the\u00a0<em>social bubbles<\/em>. Unbiased (as it may seem) and censor free interactive conversations in social media unexpectedly lead to unusual social polarization. In conclusion, the\u00a0<em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0\u201cculture\u201d seems to be fertile ground for all types of manipulation of information and its users. What drives manipulation are the so-called\u00a0<strong><em>information disorders<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0disseminated in social media.\r\n<h2><strong>Disinformation<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<strong><em>Static approach<\/em><\/strong>\r\n\r\nCurrently, many research centers as well as public and private institutions are involved in the process of classification of\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em>.\u00a0 According to one of the general taxonomies, the\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em>\u00a0may be classified in the following manner [23]:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>false, misleading information (<em>mis-information<\/em>);<\/li>\r\n \t<li>information causing damage\/pain (<em>mal-information<\/em>);<\/li>\r\n \t<li>intentionally misleading information that may cause damage\/pain (<em>dis-information<\/em>).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe subject of further interest is the so-called\u00a0<strong>disinformation<\/strong>\u00a0which refers to the information that may have characteristics of both\u00a0<em>mis-information<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0<em>mal-information<\/em>\u00a0or just one of them. In qualitative terms,\u00a0<strong>disinformation is defined as the information that may create an image of reality not necessarily in accordance with the facts<\/strong>. Depending on the\u00a0<em>intent to deceive<\/em>\u00a0[22], the types of disinformation may be as follows:\u00a0<em>satire\/parody<\/em>\u00a0\ud83e\udc6a\u00a0<em>false connections<\/em>\u00a0\ud83e\udc6a\u00a0<em>misleading content<\/em>\u00a0\ud83e\udc6a\u00a0<em>false context<\/em>\u00a0\ud83e\udc6a\u00a0<em>imposter content<\/em>\u00a0\ud83e\udc6a\u00a0<em>manipulated content<\/em>\u00a0\ud83e\udc6a\u00a0<em>fully fabricated content<\/em>. In quantitative terms, disinformation may be defined as the predefined amount of information aimed at creating the image of reality on a specific subject, including complete lack of information or information noise as well as flood of information causing information overload in recipients.\r\n\r\nIn light of the above, information disorders may be classified in different ways and take different forms, e.g. text, graphics, audio recordings, videos. As commonly understood, such information disorders are called\u00a0<strong><em>fakes<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0or\u00a0<strong><em>fake news<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0if they refer to current affairs.\u00a0<em>Fakes<\/em>\u00a0often seem to be true news, only after their analysis and verification of their source, it is possible to state that they are\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em>. On the other hand,\u00a0<strong><em>deepfakes<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0have become an absolute novelty and huge risk recently. While\u00a0<em>fakes<\/em>\u00a0are created entirely by people, of course using certain tools, such as text or graphics editors,\u00a0<em>deepfakes<\/em>\u00a0are generated automatically, using advanced algorithms, in particular\u00a0<em>machine learning algorithms<\/em>, and more precisely \u2013\u00a0<em>deep neural networks<\/em>, image recognition and speech synthesis. Of course, some tools to automate the process for recognizing\u00a0<em>deepfakes<\/em>\u00a0are also designed.\r\n\r\nUnfortunately, as already mentioned, the\u00a0<em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0\u201cculture\u201d truly \u201cdiscourages\u201d users from critical thinking. Therefore, a system approach to eliminate\u00a0<em>fakes<\/em>\u00a0is essential, which is reflected, among other things, in the form of people or whole institutions responsible for controlling facts (<strong><em>fact checkers<\/em><\/strong>) at different levels.\r\n\r\n<strong><em>Dynamic approach<\/em><\/strong>\r\n\r\n<strong>Disinformation is also defined as the process of manipulation, intentional misleading, casting doubts about the facts, and using different types of\u00a0<\/strong><strong><em>information disorders<\/em><\/strong>. Therefore, disinformation is an offensive information operation, i.e. interfering with the process of obtaining situational awareness, which is aimed at creating a specific image of reality in the recipient, hence, making the recipient to take (or not to take) the decision in accordance with the assumptions of the center planning the information operation. Disinformation constitutes, in its essence, interference in the decision-making process of the recipient (object or group of objects), also by hiding certain events or information about such events or generating information noise to confuse the recipient. Therefore, the disinformation process is based on the information which is not always false but on the whole range of the previously defined\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em>. At this point, it should be mentioned that the disinformation process to a large extent resembles negotiations between the parties, marketing campaigns, including advertising and many other human activities. In this way the disinformation process occurs wherever people have incomplete or uncertain knowledge about the subject of consideration including architectural design and engineering optimization along with problems formulation, construction of computational methods and software development.\r\n\r\nAdvanced information operations are based on the previous recognition of the recipient (object or group of objects), to whom they are addressed. As a result of the recognition, the profiles are created, which are\u00a0<em>de facto<\/em>\u00a0parametrized recipient subjectivity models on the basis of which the recipient shapes their image of reality. The construction of the subjectivity models is a complex process, which may consist in the \u201cprofiling through active communication\u201d. On the basis of the profiles, the attacker shapes the information environment of the attacked object to create the image of reality (in some way imposed by the attacker) in line with the goals of the attacker. Therefore, the attacker gains an informational advantage, which allows to influence the decision-making processes of the attacked object. It should be also mentioned that according to the above-described pattern, the contents are customized in the\u00a0<em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0\u201cculture\u201d on the intelligent web platforms by way of user profiling. In this approach, the essence of the disinformation process is clearly visible and it is not only the dissemination of false information.\r\n<h2><strong>Modeling of information operations<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<strong><em>Theory of reflexive control<\/em><\/strong>\r\n\r\nOne of the most advanced mathematical models of information operations is the\u00a0<strong><em>theory of reflexive control<\/em><\/strong>, developed in the Soviet Union by Vladimir Lefebvre [8], [9], [10], [11], in the 1960s. The Russian concept of the\u00a0<em>reflexive control<\/em>\u00a0is similar to the American concept of\u00a0<em>perception management<\/em>, however, with significantly more developed formal apparatus and probably more advanced tools from the field of, among other things, psychology and social psychology. The starting point for the\u00a0<em>reflexive control process<\/em>\u00a0is to build a specific model of the object to be controlled. The object is usually a person, i.e. the object that thinks (is reflexive), hence, creates subjective images (models) describing the world, including their beliefs and desires.\r\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img class=\"wp-image-1027 aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/serwer1894324.home.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/07\/Fig.1-1024x428.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"1024\" height=\"428\" \/><figcaption>Fig. 1. (left)\u00a0<em>Reflexion of the first kind<\/em>; (b)\u00a0<em>Reflexion of the second kind<\/em>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\nThe foundations of the construction of such a specific model are connected with the concept of\u00a0<strong><em>reflexion<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0understood as the ability to adopt a perspective of an observer of one\u2019s own beliefs and desires. The so defined\u00a0<em>reflexion<\/em>\u00a0is the\u00a0<strong><em>reflexion of the first kind<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0or\u00a0<strong><em>self-reflexion<\/em><\/strong>. The core of\u00a0<em>reflexion<\/em>\u00a0is its recursive character. The concept of\u00a0<em>reflexion<\/em>\u00a0was generalized by Lefebvre and, in the context of the\u00a0<em>reflective control<\/em>, it is understood as the ability to adopt the perspective of the observer of one\u2019s own and another reflective object\u2019s beliefs and desires. The so defined\u00a0<em>reflexion<\/em>\u00a0is the\u00a0<strong><em>reflexion of the second kind<\/em><\/strong>, which leads to the concept of the\u00a0<strong><em>hierarchy of realities<\/em><\/strong>.\r\n\r\nWhen building the model of the object subject to\u00a0<em>reflective control<\/em>, it is of key importance to include the aforesaid concept of\u00a0<em>reflexion<\/em>\u00a0of the modeled object. Object X that wants to control object Y constructs the model of the world image (model) built by object Y at a specific level of the\u00a0<em>hierarchy of realities<\/em>. On the basis of such a model, object X prepares\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em>\u00a0dedicated to object Y, aimed at encouraging object Y to make the decision as expected by object X and in such a manner so that object Y is convinced that makes this decision independently and that the decision will be the best possible decision for object Y.\u00a0<strong>The essence of reflective control is the change of approach from an attempt to predict the decision-making processes of the opponent on influencing to the decision-making processes of the opponent by using\u00a0<\/strong><strong><em>information disorders<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0[5], [18].\r\n\r\nIf the process of\u00a0<em>reflexive control<\/em>\u00a0is executed secretly and object X properly \u201cread\u201d the subjective world image of object Y, then each portion of\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em>\u00a0(marked as\u00a0<em>id<\/em>\u00a0in Fig. 2) sent from object X to object Y constitutes additional information for object X about object Y. It is also interesting that object Y may reverse the process so that it is possible to abandon the role of the controlled object and assume the role of the object controlling object X, while still confirming object X in its belief that it has full control of the\u00a0<em>reflexive control process<\/em>.\r\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img class=\"wp-image-1028 aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/serwer1894324.home.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/07\/Fig.2-1024x494.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"1024\" height=\"494\" \/><figcaption>Fig. 2. The concept of reflexive control process.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\n<strong><em>Theory of disinformation<\/em><\/strong>\r\n\r\nThe modeling of information operations carried out in social media, the distinction between the controlling object and the controlled object is not sufficient. In such case, it is helpful to use the\u00a0<strong><em>theory of disinformation<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0developed by Vladimir Volkoff [20], according to which different actors playing certain roles in the disinformation process:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>Commissioning Party<\/em>\u00a0(<em>Client<\/em>) \u2013 a person or a group that derives benefits from the disinformation process;<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Agent of Influence<\/em>\u00a0\u2013 an entity executing the commissioned disinformation process;<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Theme<\/em>\u00a0(<em>Leitmotif<\/em>) \u2013 the main\u00a0<em>id\u00e9e fixe<\/em>\u00a0being a specific narrative for the purpose of the disinformation process;<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Supports<\/em>\u00a0(<em>Props<\/em>) \u2013 events (true or false) that are \u201cfuel\u201d for the disinformation process;<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Transmitters<\/em>\u00a0(<em>Carriers<\/em>) \u2013 objects (including media) connected with the\u00a0<em>Commissioning Party<\/em>\u00a0or the\u00a0<em>Agent of Influence<\/em>\u00a0and intentionally propagating\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Resonators<\/em>\u00a0\u2013 objects (including media) not connected with the\u00a0<em>Commissioning Party<\/em>\u00a0or the\u00a0<em>Agent of Influence<\/em>\u00a0and unintentionally propagating\u00a0<em>information disorders<\/em>;<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Target Group<\/em>\u00a0(<em>Intended Audience<\/em>) \u2013 a person or a group being the target of disinformation process.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIn case of social media, many objects playing different roles participate in the disinformation process. What is also important is the fact that in this information environment, it is very easy to reach people who propagate disinformation on the basis of the\u00a0<em>Resonator<\/em>s. It is equally easy to obtain\u00a0<em>Transmitters<\/em>\u00a0via\u00a0<strong><em>social bots<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0and whole\u00a0<strong><em>social botnets<\/em><\/strong>, which may be constructed in a relatively easy manner, with little technical knowledge, or which may be bought in the form of a service. Due to the\u00a0<em>Web3.0<\/em>\u00a0\u201cculture\u201d, the so-called\u00a0<em>Resonators<\/em>\u00a0are widely available and have actual impact on the disinformation process; often because of their number, they may completely take the role of\u00a0<em>Transmitters<\/em>.\r\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img class=\"wp-image-1029 aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/serwer1894324.home.pl\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/07\/Fig.3.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"878\" height=\"617\" \/><figcaption>Fig. 3. Dissemination of disinformation in social media.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\nThe main issue in case of the modeling of information operations in social media is to understand the dissemination (diffusion) process of the phenomena in this environment [4], [5], including assessment of the role and significance of particular \u201cnodes\u201d in the network and forecast of diffusion dynamics and reach of the information being a product of the information operation. It should be also mentioned that there are fundamental differences at the model level and technical level of the disinformation process when the object of the information attack is a single object or a group of objects.\r\n<h2><strong>Summary<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nReality at the information level is more and more difficult to verify and easier to manipulate because of cyberspace. Due to wide access to the Internet, social media started to play more significant role in the shaping of public opinion on basically every subject and to broadly impact the way of world perception by people, social groups or whole societies. The awareness of risks at the information level is still limited.\r\n\r\nThe theory of\u00a0<em>reflective control<\/em>\u00a0facilitates the analysis of the decision-making process with respect to both own and the opponent\u2019s decisions due to a possibility of manipulating the situation awareness. The theory enjoys quite a rich history and strong position among analysts of national security both in Russia and the United States.\u00a0 Many Western analysts see it as the Russian alternative to\u00a0<strong><em>game theory<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0[21]. At this point, it should be noted that the\u00a0<strong><em>hypergame theory<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0[1], [7], [13], [19], also referred to as\u00a0<strong><em>metagames<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0or\u00a0<strong><em>higher-order games<\/em><\/strong>, which first appeared in the 1970s, may be perceived as the Western response to the\u00a0<em>theory of reflective control<\/em>. Nowadays, the theory of\u00a0<em>reflective control<\/em>\u00a0is being developed \u2013 to a certain degree \u2013 independently by several research groups that propose a different formal apparatus to describe and analyze\u00a0<em>reflective control<\/em>\u00a0[12], [14], [15], [16], [17]. One of the branches may be the aforementioned\u00a0<em>hypergame theory<\/em>. At the same time, information operations are also modeling using the traditional\u00a0<em>game theory<\/em>\u00a0[3].\r\n<h2><strong>References<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container\">\r\n\r\n[1] Bennett P., Toward a Theory of Hypergames, Omega 5, (1977) 749\u2013751.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container\">\r\n\r\n[2] Bond R, Fariss Ch., Jones J., Kramer A., Marlow C., Settle J. Fowler J., A 61-Million-Person Experiment in Social Influence and Political Mobilization, Nature 489, (2012) 295\u2013298.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n[3] Jormakka J., M\u00f6ls\u00e4 J., Modelling Information Warfare as a Game, Journal of Information Warfare, Vol. 4, Issue 2, (2005) 12\u201325.\r\n\r\n[4] Kasprzyk R., Diffusion in Networks, Journal of Telecommunications and Information Technology, No 2, (2012) 99\u2013106.\r\n\r\n[5] Kasprzyk R., The Essence of Reflexive Control and Diffusion of Information in the Context of Information Environment Security, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, Springer, Vol. 835, (2019) 720\u2013728.\r\n\r\n[6] Kramer A., Guillory J., Hancock J., Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks, PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(24), (2014) 8788\u20138790.\r\n\r\n[7] Kovach N.S., Gibson A.S., Lamont G.B., Hypergame Theory: A Model for Conflict, Misperception, and Deception, Game Theory, Vol. 2015, Article ID 570639 (2015).\r\n\r\n[8] Lefebvre V., Basic ideas of reflexive games logic, Problemy Issledovania Sistem i Structur, Moscow, AN USSR Press, (1965).\r\n\r\n[9] Lefebvre V., Baranov P., Lepsky V., Internal Currency in Reflexive Games, Izvestia, AN USSR, Tekhnicheskaya Kibernetika, No. 4, (1969).\r\n\r\n[10] Lefebvre V., Algebra of Conscience, second enlarged edition, Kluwer, Holland, (2001).\r\n\r\n[11] Lefebvre V., Lectures on reflexive Game Theory, Leaf &amp; Oaks Publisher, Los Angeles, USA, (2010).\r\n\r\n[12] Novikov D., Chkartishvili A., Refleksivnye igry (Reflexive games), SINTEG, Moscow, (2003).\r\n\r\n[13] Mateski M., Mazzuchi T., Sarkani S., The Hypergame Perception Model: A Diagrammatic Approach to Modeling Perception Misperception and Deception, Military Operations Research, Vol. 15, No 2, (2010) 21\u201337.\r\n\r\n[14] Schreider Yu., Continously-valued logics Lefm as languages of reflexion, Nauchnotekhnicheskaya Informatsia, No 1\u20132 (1999).\r\n\r\n[15] Taran T., Model of Reflexive Behavior in Conflict Situation, Journal of Computer and Systems Sciences International, No 1, (1998).\r\n\r\n[16] Taran T., Many-valued Boolean Model of Reflexive Agent, Multi-Valued Logic, No 7 (2001).\r\n\r\n[17] Taran T., Boolean models of reflexive control and their application for describing information warfare in social-economical systems, Avtomatika i Telemekhanika, No 11, (2004).\r\n\r\n[18] Thomas T., Russia\u2019s Reflexive Control Theory and the Military, Journal of Slavic Military Studies 17, (2004) 237\u2013256.\r\n\r\n[19] Trudolubov A., Decisions on dependency nets and reflexive polynomials\u201d, VI Symposium po Kibernetike, Part III, Tibilisi, (1972).\r\n\r\n[20] Volkoff V., Petite histoire de la d\u00e9sinformation, Les Editions du Rocher, (1999).\r\n\r\n[21] Von Neumann J., Morgenstern O., Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, John Wiley and Sons, (1944).\r\n\r\n[22] Wardle C., Fake news. It\u2019s complicated\u201d, https:\/\/firstdraftnews.com:443\/fake-news-complicated\/, (2017).\r\n\r\n[23] Wardle C., Derakhshan H., Information Disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policymaking, Council of Europe, Vol. 9 (2017).\r\n\r\n[24] JP 3-13, Cyberspace Operations, U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 8 June 2018.\r\n\r\n[25] JP 3-13, Information Operations, U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 20 November 2014.\r\n\r\n[26] https:\/\/www.definitions.net\/definition\/situation+awareness.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\r\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\r\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\r\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\r\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\r\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\r\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-block-file aligncenter\">\r\n<h2>Read more from InformNapalm:<\/h2>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/prigozhins-impersonator-in-lithuania\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Prigozhin\u2019s impersonator exploited in a failed information operation in Lithuania<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/the-influence-operation-run-by-yevgeny-prigozhin\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">The influence operation run by Yevgeny Prigozhin, who was just added to the FBI Most Wanted list, has new targets right in the heart of Europe<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/belarusian-kgb\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Belarusian KGB in the city of Grodno detained Dzianis Ivashin, a Belarusian journalist and an InformNapalm volunteer<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/nato-targeted-with-false-narratives\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">NATO targeted with false narratives about \u2018offensive\u2019 exercises and stirring protests in Russia<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/russian-army-shows-how-it-trains-to-violate-international-humanitarian-law\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Russian army shows how it trains to violate international humanitarian law<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/participants-of-the-russian-spec-ops\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Derkach Six \u2013 overlooked participants of the Russian special operation \u201cDerkach tapes\u201d \u2013 Shariy, Portnov, Kolomoisky and others<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/protection-of-russian-world-will-be-priority-for-russian-authorities-says-peskov-he-also-reminded-about-russian-soft-power\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Protection of \u201cRussian World\u201d will be priority for Russian authorities, says Peskov. He also reminded about Russian \u2018soft power\u2019<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/ukrainian-counterintelligence\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Ukrainian counterintelligence exposed the FSB agent network plotting sabotage and abductions<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/medvedchuks-tv-channels\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Medvedchuk\u2019s TV channels closure in Ukraine is a counteraction to Russian hybrid aggression, not an attack on freedom of speech<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/sweden-predicts-potential-hybrid-aggression-by-russia-video\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Sweden predicts potential hybrid aggression by Russia (VIDEO)<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n<img class=\"ls-is-cached lazyloaded aligncenter\" style=\"color: #333333;font-style: normal;font-weight: 300\" src=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2015\/12\/InformNapalm_logo_05.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"80\" height=\"37\" data-src=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2015\/12\/InformNapalm_logo_05.png\" \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><em><strong>InformNapalm Partner in Lithuania: Res Publica - Civic Resilience Center<\/strong><\/em><em style=\"font-weight: 300\"><strong>.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\">InformNapalm social media pages:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/informnapalm24en\/\">Facebook<\/a>\u00a0\/\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/twitter.com\/en_informnapalm\">Twitter\u00a0<\/a>\/\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/t.me\/informnapalm\">Telegram<\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/ua.informnapalm.org\/posts\/1803410319799958\">Support InformNapalm<\/a><\/h2>\r\n<em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/Respublic\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><img class=\"wp-image-660 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/lt\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/15\/2020\/06\/Logo-Res-Publica.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"63\" height=\"63\" \/><\/a><\/em>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\r\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\r\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\r\n<div class=\"page-content content\">\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;","amp_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/16511","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/116"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=16511"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/16511\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":16520,"href":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/16511\/revisions\/16520"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/16517"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=16511"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=16511"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/informnapalm.org\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=16511"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}